ClimateandFuel

Cars - Electric, Compressed Air, Hydrogen, Bio, efficiencies.

Electric cars available in near future.

The first stage in the changes to non CO2 polluting road transport will be the introduction of battery powered electric cars, initially with Lithium-ion batteries.

The cost of Li- Ion batteries is currently high at $1000 per kwh and 15 kwh could be needed for a range of 100 km (160m). Battery weight is relatively high. Costs may come down in future while alternative battery construction may also increase range (Zn-air At-air Li-air.) A compromise must therefore be met between cost and weight of the battery on the one hand and range with suitable recharging facilities.

While suitable for the many short distances most people do most of the time (recharging from ones own house), for long distance travel decisions must be made to put in place a suitable refueling infrastructure. The options are high rate charging points, battery swap systems; and to bridge the gap while the infrastructure is being built, onboard recharging from petrol/diesel. Satellite direction to nearest charging point will also be included. However continual fast charging may reduce battery life and effectiveness so a routine of slow charging would be best.

Types of electric car in the near future:-

Suitable for those who mainly do short journeys up to 100 + miles (170km+) and to enable long journeys an infrastructure of quick charging or battery swap stations are necessary or battery development. For examples See bottom of page for details, range, cost, power etc. In cold weather range could reduce to 70-80 miles.

Fuel saving due to regenerative breaking and more efficient speed regime. Petrol engine and electric motors all provide mechanical drive. This option will be phased out in favour of Plug in Hybrid. Has been available for a few years.

Could run for 50 miles or up to 50mph before engine cuts in. Suitable for those doing many short journeys and gives range up to 300-500 miles for long journeys. Chevrolet Volt 2012 UK; Vauxhaul Ampera 2012 UK:Volvo V70 plug-in Hybrid 2012, BYD F3, Landrover hybrid 2012, Toyota Prius 2010, see today's hybrid. VW plan to develop and bring to market by 2013 a version with a 25 mile battery and circa 300 mpg with an 800cc diesel engine.

Variation on plug in Hybrid. Petrol/diesel engine not connected mechanically to wheels but provides on board charging; electric motors provide drive. (Original 1970's hybrid concept.)

Hydrogen Fuel cell electric designs.

The Honda FCX Clarity future design where the fuel cell creates electricity from hydrogen (in tank) and oxygen (from air) to drive motor with back up from Lithium battery. Range should be better than battery cars but requires extensive hydrogen supply infrastructure. Available in California also new London Taxi cabs (LTI & Lotus.)

Riverside have developed a light (350kg) two seater car with hydrogen fuel cell using ultra capacitors to provide regenerative power stored from breaking. Range 200 miles from 2.2 lb (1kg) stored Hydrogen. Use intended for City/urban.

During acceleration, the fuel cell and the capacitors supply electricity to motors/generators on each of the four wheels. During steady running the fuel cell supplies the wheels and charges the capacitors and when braking, the motor/generators at the 4 wheels charge the capacitors.See more on hydrogen Fuel cell car

Refueling Lithium Battery Electric cars.

As many if not most cars are used for short journeys battery cars will be recharged from ones own home/ garage from a 3kw 13 amp plug, probably at a low tariff at night or when supply is in surplus using 'smart metering.' Where mains electricity is obtained from solar wind or nuclear sources the solution would be 'carbon free.'

For longer journeys an infrastructure across the country providing recharging service stations would be built up. Evoasis is installing stations/cafes in the UK with 440v 20 min quick charging points. A satnav system will be used for easy location, a supply of replacement batteries will be available and use of wind/solar energy maximized.

In the US 'plugshare' is an arrangement where a network of individuals offer recharge from their own house, free or with nominal charge. Several generate electricity from wind or solar. Members of the scheme have phone numbers and addresses available.

An alternative recharge arrangement is to drive over a bay with an induction recharge arrangement which does not require connection (as in an electric toothbrush) but requires a recharging coil in the car also. The receiver pad etc has been tested by fitting it to a Citroen C1 Evie by HaloIPT a New Zealand Company.

To support the requirement of charging battery driven cars a 'smart' system of transmission control and charging control to fit into the pattern of varying supply and demand on transmission grid networks will evolve. The cost of recharge may vary depending on intermittent green methods of generation to make most use of such intermittent sources.

On route quick Service station battery swapping system

' Project Better Place' plan a battery swapping system with the introduction of battery cars in 2011 (at equivalent overall cost or lower if tax incentive system. ) Batteries would be recharged via solar or wind. Israel, Denmark, Hawaii, parts of Australia and San Francisco Bay Area will be building a network of battery switch stations.

Comment : The time given above may have to be extended to ensure a good battery connection.'

Compressed air drive for vehicles, fueled from electric driven compressors.

Cars driven by a compressed air piston engine, cylinders carried underneath the car. These are being developed in India. The 3 seater 'OneCAT' has a claimed range of 120 to 180 miles (200 to 300 km) weight 770 lbs (350 kg) low servicing and cost, speed up to 70 mph.

A compressed air car has probably 1/3 the efficiency of a battery car. With energy from a local wind or other green source however, reliability and cost would be the main considerations. 300 L of air at 300 bar has the same energy ( 14 kw hr) as 5.4 litres (1.2 galls) petrol.

Fuel >> Petrol engine 16% Diesel engine 20% (normal driving - variable speed.)

Photo voltaic cell electricity >> charger 90% >> battery 90% >> motor 80% >>regeneration 130% = 84%

Note: A Battery car involves less CO2 emissions than a Petrol car provided that electrical generation is green (incl nuclear.) Manufacture of the battery however can generate considerable CO2. (see table on RH column). Power station efficiency bumped up to allow for 14% renewables on system. Regeneration figure to allow for breaking depends on use.

Heat >> H2(electrolysis)25% >> fuel cell 75% >> electricity/motor 80% =15%

Heat >>H2(electrolysis/thermo chem)45% >> fuel cell 75% >> electric/motor 80% = 27%

Efficiency using a fuel cell car , hydrogen generated from fossil fuel source is 6 to 10%

Report on efficiencies of air and battery cars.

See page on decreasing fuel consumption by economical driving 33%

Bio fuel an interim replacement but limited due to land pressure.

Current manufacture of Bio fuel will have limited use long term where growing it requires land, which is therefore not available for crops, or forest (the latter which would otherwise help reconvert CO2 back to Oxygen.) Brazil has made extensive use of bio fuel as a green alternative to petrol/diesel. See bio page.

Ineous chemicals claim that they can make 400 litres (90 gallons) of ethanol from one tonne of dry waste, heating the waste to produce gas, feeding the gas to bacteria which produce ethanol which can then be purified.

Ricardo engine could result in Ethanol being more efficient than diesel.

Using ethanol boosted direct injection (EBDI) which achieves higher engine pressures plus several other refinements, advantage is taken of the higher octane value of ethanol and higher heat of vaporization, resulting in an engine with higher efficiency than a diesel. (ref 195)

Transport

Hydrogen / fuel cells

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Some battery only Electric cars in UK available now or soon

The quick charge option involves higher power and probably a three phase supply connection. Range depends very much on use.

Make

Range miles

Power

Charge time

Quick charge

£ cost

Battery/ life

Mitshbishi 1 MIEV

80

47 kW

6 hrs

30 mins

£23,990 (after £5000 UK )

8- 10 yrs

Nissan Leaf EV

100

40 kW

8 hrs

30 mins

£23,950 (after £5000 UK)

8-10 years

Citroen C zero

90

circa 40kw

6-7 hrs

30 mins to 80%

lease

Peugeot Ion

80

6 hrs

30 mins

Smart fourtwoED

80

6 hrs

30 mins

Mini E

155

10 hrs

4 hrs

Renault Fluence

circa 100

circa 40kw

6 hrs

10mins 30miles 30 mis 90 miles

£18,000 (after £5000 UK)

Battery rented £40-70 +pm Quick drop battery change system.

Tata vista EV +++

110

circa 40 kW

8 hrs

£23,950 (after £5000 UK)

8-10 years

Reva G wiz

70

14.5kW

8 hrs

2.5 hrs

£14,000

Lead acid & LI ion ++ Two seater +

Rolls Phantom

100

290

20 hrs

8 hrs 3ph

Induction quick charge

BYD E6 China

300

40kw

overnight

15 mins 50% 60 mins full

>300,000 miles

Tesla Sports

220

185kW

14 hrs

3.5 hrs

£86,950

100,000 miles

Lightning Sports

150-200

4X120kW

overnight

a) 2 hrs or b) 10 mins *

15 - 25000 charges

Mega city

37-50

4kW

5-8

lead acid

£12,560

2 yrs

UK gov.£5000 subsidy for battery cars. In 2012 Toyoto plug in; Vauxhaul Ampera: Chevrolet Volt(US version.)

*The Lightning sports car has a Lithium Titanate oxide battery from Altairnano, rechargeable in 10 mins. Life 20 years or 25,000 charges, but 85% power retained after 15000 cycles (ref 184).

** Satellite nav. shows infrastructure/ nearest charging point. Novel transformer for charging (yet to be developed) where car has secondary coil which driver manoeuvers over primary coil for quick charge. Li-Ion battery would have been £6000.